So often, many of us go to the grocery store, pick out produce, and put it in the crisper. Then a few days later, we take it out of the crisper, notice it has gone bad, and throw it straight into the trash (or compost). Rinse and repeat. To call that a waste would be an understatement, especially considering the food scarcity crisis all across the world.
Now Tropic, a biotech company in England, is helping to solve this issue by genetically engineering bananas that don’t go bad for 12 hours after they’re peeled.
Tropic’s website lists their goals and procedures quite transparently: “By fast-forwarding natural breeding techniques, we develop improved varieties of tropical crops that are easier to cultivate and healthier for people and the planet.”
They also provide some pretty shocking statistics that might help put the importance of what their researchers are doing into perspective: “Tropic’s non-browning bananas have the potential to significantly reduce food waste and CO2 emissions along the supply chain by more than 25%, as over 60% of exported bananas go to waste before reaching the consumer. This innovative product can support a reduction in CO2 emissions equivalent to removing two million passenger vehicles from the road each year.”
With the world’s population growing at a massive rate, scientists have been eager to find solutions to food shortages and rising CO2 emissions. It’s why researchers are so excited about the continuous breakthroughs in GMOs (genetically modified organisms)—though some have been skeptical in the last few decades.
In a 2015 piece for Scientific American, writer Stefaan Blancke explains why some people might fear it, citing the “Frankenfood” controversy: “In the context of opposition to GMOs, genetic modification is deemed ‘unnatural,’ and biotechnologists are accused of ‘playing God.’ The popular term ‘Frankenfood’ captures what is at stake: by going against the will of nature in an act of hubris, we are bound to bring enormous disaster upon ourselves.”
But he hopes the tide is turning: “Emphasizing the benefits of current and future GM applications—improved soil structures because herbicide-resistant crops require less or no tilling, higher income for farmers in developing countries, reduced vitamin A deficiency, virus and drought resistance, to name a few—might constitute the most effective approach to changing people’s minds.”
In the 2021 article, “Can gene editing reduce postharvest waste and loss of fruit, vegetables, and ornamentals?” on Nature.com, they take an even stronger stance on the importance of genetic modification: “Plant gene editing may be the greatest innovation in plant breeding since the Green Revolution.”
The Green Revolution was led by agronomist Norman Borlaug, who was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Congressional Gold Medal, and a Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 for “his contributions having such an impact on food production, particularly in Asia and in Latin America.” He later went on to help course-correct the effects of severe drought in many African countries, literally saving millions of lives.
But it doesn’t just stop with bananas. In the article, “Gene-edited non-browning bananas could cut food waste, scientists say, “The Guardian notes, “Other research teams are working on lettuce that wilts more slowly, bruise-resistant apples and potatoes, and identifying the genes that determine how quickly grapes and blueberries shrivel.”
The article also shares that researchers at the Khalifa Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology aim to use gene-editing to help the growth of other food, specifically with the ripening process. Senior research associate at the Center Martin Kottackal Ph.D. shares, “We’re working on tomato, lettuce, eggplant. They’re all in the pipeline.”
Bottlenose dolphins are social creatures that use whistles and clicks to communicate with each other. – Photo credit: Brookfield Zoo Chicago’s Sarasota Dolphin Research Program, taken under NMFS MMPA Scientific Research Permit
But it wasn’t until the 1960s that methodical research into dolphin communication began. Scientists like John Lilly and the husband-and-wife team of Melba and David Caldwell tried various experiments to decipher the sounds dolphins can make.
The Caldwells figured out a way to record isolated animals in human care. They discovered that each individual dolphin communicated mostly with one unique whistle, which they called the “signature whistle.” Researchers now know that these whistles convey identities much like human names do. Dolphins use them to stay in touch with each other in their murky habitat, where vision is limited. It’s like announcing “I’m over here!” when someone can’t see you.
This collaborative study, led by Randall Wells of Brookfield Zoo Chicago’s Sarasota Dolphin Research Program, involves numerous researchers from a variety of institutions, who study different aspects of dolphin biology, health, ecology and behavior. Begun in 1970, this is the longest-running research project on a population of wild cetaceans – whales, dolphins and porpoises – in the world.
Each dolphin has distinctive markings on its dorsal fin. Experienced researchers can sometimes identify them by sight in the field, and they photograph them to confirm their identity in the lab. – Photo credit: Photo by Brookfield Zoo Chicago’s Sarasota Dolphin Research Program, taken under NMFS MMPA Scientific Research Permit
Recording and observing
Researchers know the age, sex and maternal relatedness of almost all of the approximately 170 dolphins in the Sarasota community. This depth of knowledge provides an unprecedented opportunity to study communication in a wild cetacean species.
The dolphins in the Sarasota project are periodically subject to brief catch-and-release health assessments, during which researchers, including me, briefly handle individual dolphins.
Our team attaches suction-cup hydrophones directly onto each dolphin’s melon – that is, its forehead. We then record the dolphins continuously throughout the health assessments, taking notes on who is being recorded when, and what is happening at the time.
This is how my colleagues and I were able to confirm that wild dolphins, like captive animals, produced large numbers of individually distinctive signature whistles when briefly isolated from other dolphins. Through observations and recordings of known free-swimming dolphins, we were further able to confirm that they produced these same signature whistles in undisturbed contexts.
We have organized these recordings into the Sarasota Dolphin Whistle Database, which now contains nearly 1,000 recording sessions of 324 individual dolphins. More than half of the dolphins in the database have been recorded more than once.
We identify each dolphin’s signature whistle based on its prevalence: In the catch-and-release context, about 85% of the whistles that dolphins produced are signature whistles. We can identify these visually, by viewing plots of frequency vs. time called spectrograms.
Spectrograms of signature whistles of 269 individual bottlenose dolphins recorded in Sarasota. Figure created by Frants Jensen, with sound files from Laela Sayigh
Signature whistles and ‘motherese’
The Sarasota Dolphin Whistle Database has proved to be a rich resource for understanding dolphin communication. For instance, we have discovered that some calves develop signature whistles similar to those of their mothers, but many do not, raising questions about what factors influence signature whistle development.
Dolphin mothers modify their signature whistles when communicating with their calves by increasing the maximum frequency, or pitch. This is similar to human caregivers using a higher-pitched voice when communicating with young children – a phenomenon known as “motherese.”
Also similar to humans is how dolphins will initiate contact with another dolphin by imitating their signature whistle – what we call a signature whistle copy. This is similar to how you would use someone’s name to call out to them.
Our team is interested in finding out if dolphins also copy whistles of others who aren’t present, potentially talking about them. We have seen evidence of this in our recordings of dolphins during health assessments, which provide a rare context to document this phenomenon convincingly. But we still have more work to do to confirm that these are more than chance similarities in whistles.
Shared whistle types
Another exciting development has been our recent discovery of shared whistle types — ones that are used by multiple animals and that are not signature whistles. We call these non-signature whistles.
I could hardly believe my ears when I first discovered a repeated, shared non-signature whistle type being produced by multiple dolphins in response to sounds we play back to them through an underwater speaker. We had previously believed that these non-signature whistles were somewhat random, but now I was hearing many different dolphins making a similar whistle type.
Our team originally had been using the playbacks to try to determine whether dolphins use “voice cues” to recognize each other – similar to how you can recognize the voice of someone you know. Although we found that dolphins did not use voice cues, our discovery of shared non-signature whistle types has led to an entirely new research direction.
The author listens to dolphin whistles on a boat in Sarasota. Jonathan Bird from the film ‘Call of the Dolphins’/Oceanic Research Group, Inc.
So far, I’ve identified at least 20 different shared non-signature whistle types, and I am continuing to build our catalog. We are hoping that artificial intelligence methods may help us categorize these whistle types in the future.
To understand how these shared non-signature whistle types function, we are carrying out more playback experiments, filming the dolphins’ responses with drones. We’ve found that one such whistle often leads the dolphins to swim away, suggesting a possible alarm-type function. We have also found that another type might be an expression of surprise, as we have seen animals produce it when they hear unexpected stimuli.
More difficult, more interesting
So far, the main takeaway from our experiments has been that dolphin communication is complex and that there are not going to be one-size-fits-all responses to any non-signature whistle type. This isn’t surprising, given that, like us, these animals have complicated social relationships that could affect how they respond to different sound types.
For instance, when you hear someone call your name, you may respond differently if you are with a group of people or alone, or if you recently had an argument with someone, or if you’re hungry and on your way to eat.
Our team has a lot more work ahead to sample as many dolphins in as many contexts as possible, such as different ages, sexes, group compositions and activities.
This makes my job more difficult – and far more interesting. I feel lucky every day I am able to spend working on the seemingly infinite number of fascinating research questions about dolphin communication that await answers.
Gavin, with help from aquarium staff, had secretly planned to propose right in front of the beluga whale tank. As he got down on one knee, a whale named Qinu swam into view.
The 16-year-old marine mammal paused right at the glass and appeared to drop her jaw in shock.
I’ve been interning with the beluga training team for the last 3 months so this was the most thoughtful way he could’ve done it 🥺 #georgiaaquarium#belugawhale#proposal
The moment was caught on video, and when Olivia shared it on TikTok, the comment section exploded. It looked exactly like the whale was gasping at the size of the ring.
“The most perfect proposal I could’ve asked for,” Olivia wrote.
Viewers immediately anthropomorphized the whale’s hilarious expression.
“The beluga NEEDS to officiate the wedding now,” one user joked.
Another simply commented: “The beluga: :O”
Even the official Play-Doh account chimed in to insist that the whale deserved a wedding invite.
According to People, Qinu’s involvement wasn’t a planned stunt. Katie Lorenz, the associate curator of mammals and birds at the Georgia Aquarium, confirmed that the reaction was entirely natural.
“Qinu’s behavior at the window was her own,” Lorenz said. “She was not intentionally trained to have any type of reaction.”
Unlike many other whales, belugas have unique physical characteristics that allow for this kind of “human” expression. They have a flexible neck and unfused cervical vertebrae, which allows them to nod and turn their heads.
Furthermore, their “melon” (the rounded forehead) is flexible and capable of changing shape, which often makes them appear to be smiling or making faces.
The moment was even more poignant because Olivia wasn’t just a random visitor. She had actually been a beluga whale training intern at the aquarium for the past three months.
“My fiancé is the most thoughtful person,” she wrote in a reply. “He knows how much I’ve loved working with the whales and truly made it the most special moment.”
The Conversation
Of course, viral videos involving captive animals often spark debate. Some commenters questioned the ethics of keeping an animal like Qinu in a tank.
“Nothing cute or adorable about these sentient creatures being kept confined in glass houses for human amusement,” one user wrote.
A beluga whale pops up from the water. Photo credit: Canva
However, for the vast majority of viewers, the video was a moment of pure joy. The clip has racked up over 7 million views on TikTok alone, and Qinu has officially become the internet’s favorite wedding crasher.
For those who want to see more of the star, the Georgia Aquarium maintains a live beluga cam where fans can check in on Qinu. As for the happy couple, they now have a proposal story that is going to be very hard to top.
This article originally appeared last year. It has been updated.
Probability can explain why a coin flip has a 50/50 chance of landing heads versus tails, but it also can be used for more powerful applications. – Photo credit: Monty Rakusen/DigitalVision via Getty Images
Probability underpins AI, cryptography and statistics. However, as the philosopher Bertrand Russell said, “Probability is the most important concept in modern science, especially as nobody has the slightest notion what it means.”
Probability is a branch of mathematics that describes randomness. When scientists describe randomness, they’re describing chance events – like a coin flip – not strange occurrences, like a person dressed as a zebra. While scientists do not have a way to predict strange occurrences, probability does predict long-run behavior – that is, the trends that emerge from many repeated events.
Since probability is about events, a scientist must choose which events to study. This choice defines the sample space. When flipping a coin, for example, you might define your event as the way it lands.
Coins almost always land on heads or tails. However, it’s possible – if very unlikely – for a coin to land on its side. So to create a sample space, you’d have two choices: heads and tails, or heads, tails and side. For now, ignore the side landings and use heads and tails as our sample space.
Next, you would assign probabilities to the events. Probability describes the rate of occurrence of an event and takes values between 0% and 100%. For example, a fair flip will tend to land 50% heads up and 50% tails up.
To assign probabilities, however, you need to think carefully about the scenario. What if the person flipping the coin is a cheater? There’s a sneaky technique to “wobble” the coin without flipping, controlling the outcome. Even if you can prevent cheating, real coin flips are slightly more probable to land on their starting face – so if you start the flip with the coin heads up, it’s very slightly more likely to land heads up.
In both the cheating and real flip cases, you need an appropriate sample space: starting face and other face. To have a fair flip in the real world, you’d need an additional step where you randomly – with equal probability – choose the starting face, then flip the coin.
These assumptions add up quickly. To have a fair flip, you had to ignore side landings, assume no one is cheating, and assume the starting face is evenly random. Together, these assumptions constitute a model for the coin flip with random outcomes. Probability tells us about the long-run behavior of a random model. In the case of the coin model, probability describes how many coins land on heads out of many flips.
But instead of using a random model, why not just solve the coin toss using physics? Actually, scientists have done just that, and the physics shows that slight changes in the speed of the flip determine whether it comes up heads or tails. This sensitivity makes a coin flip unpredictable, so a random model is a good one.
Frequency vs. probability
Probability differs from frequency, which is the rate of events in a sequence. For example, if you flip a coin eight times and get two heads, that’s a frequency of 25%. Even if the probability of flipping a coin and seeing heads is 50% over the long run, each short sequence of flips will come out different. Four heads and four tails is the most probable outcome from eight flips, but other events can – and will – happen.
Frequency and probability are the same in one special setting: when the number of data points goes to infinity. In this sense, probability tells us about long-run behavior.
Probability isn’t just useful for predicting coin flips. It underlies many modern technological systems.
For example, AI systems such as large language models, or LLMs, are based on next-word prediction. Essentially, they compute a probability for the words that follow your prompt. For example, with the prompt “New York” you might get “City” or “State” as the predicted next word, because in the training data those are the words that most frequently follow.
But since probability describes randomness, the outputs of a LLM are random. Just like a sequence of coin flips is not guaranteed to come out the same way every time, if you ask an LLM the same question again, you will tend to get a different response. Effectively, each next word is treated like a new coin flip.
Randomness is also key to cryptography: the science of securing information. Cryptographic communication uses a shared secret, such as a password, to secure information. However, surprising randomness isn’t good enough for security, which is why picking a surprising word is a bad choice of password. A shared secret is only secure if it’s hard to guess. Even if a word is surprising, real words are easier to guess than flipping a “coin” for each letter.
You can make a much stronger password by using probability to choose characters at random on your keyboard – or better yet, use a password manager.
Finally, randomness is key in statistics. Statisticians are responsible for designing and analyzing studies to make use of limited data. This practice is especially important when studying medical treatments, because every data point represents a person’s life.
The gold standard is a randomized controlled trial. Participants are assigned to receive the new treatment or the current standard of care based on a fair coin flip. It may seem strange to do this assignment randomly – using coin flips to make decisions about lives. However, the unpredictability serves an important role, as it ensures that nothing about the person affects their chance to get the treatment: not age, gender, race, income or any other factor. The unpredictability helps scientists ensure that only the treatment causes the observed result and not any other factor.
So what does probability mean? Like any kind of math, it’s only a model, meaning it can’t perfectly describe the world. In the examples discussed, probability is useful for describing long-term behaviors and using unpredictability to solve practical problems.
