The existence of God has been a point of debate for centuries, examined through both religious beliefs and scientific inquiry. Theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking, known for his groundbreaking work in cosmology, addressed this question in his final book, Brief Answers to the Big Questions.
Although Hawking’s book was mostly completed before he passed, his family and academic colleagues helped finish it posthumously. In it, Hawking explored his thoughts on God’s existence, a topic he often faced as a scientist. Reflecting on his own disability, he remarked, “For centuries, it was believed that disabled people like me were living under a curse that was inflicted by God. Well, I suppose it’s possible that I’ve upset someone up there, but I prefer to think that everything can be explained another way, by the laws of nature.” His words reflect a belief in science as a way to understand the universe without needing to invoke divine forces.
Stephen Hawking Stephen Hawking (Wikicommons)Image Source: Professor Stephen Hawking attends the gala screening of “Hawking” on the opening night of the Cambridge Film Festival held at Emmanuel College on September 19, 2013 in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire. (Photo by Karwai Tang/Getty Images)
He added that people like him, who believe in science, “believe that there are certain laws that are always obeyed. If you like, you can say the laws are the work of God, but that is more a definition of God than a proof of his existence.”
Hawking refused to acknowledge the existence of God with his most direct, personal answer as he outrightly said, “It’s my view that the simplest explanation is that there is no God. No one created the universe and no one directs our fate.”
The late astrophysicist had a prestigious career and made enormous contributions to science. He was commended for his work on the physics of black holes. Hawking proposed that black holes emit subatomic particles until they eventually explode. He also proposed the multiverse theory, which states that our universe is one of many parallel universes existing in a fractal-like multiverse, published in the Journal of High Energy Physics.
The genius scientist struggled with health complications throughout his adult life. At 21, he was diagnosed with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), which is a type of motor neuron disease. Despite the life-threatening disease, Hawking managed to live much of his life in a motorized wheelchair, communicating mostly with the assistance of a portable system mounted on its arms.
The renowned scientist passed away at the age of 76 on March 14, 2018, in his home. A year before that, he said he was thankful for his extended life. “I never expected to reach 75, so I feel very fortunate to be able to reflect on my legacy,” he said in an interview with BBC.
Photo credit: Cavan Images/Cavan via Getty Images – This virtue helps you figure out when and how to apply the other virtues in real, varying situations.
A few semesters into my teaching career as a psychology professor, I uncovered a cheating ring. I determined who the ringleader was and called him to my office.
He admitted that he had illicitly obtained a copy of the exam and shared it with other students. He began to cry, telling me he was from a single parent family, the first in his family to go to college, and that his mother would be crushed if he was dismissed from the university for academic dishonesty.
I did not know what to do. I was angry at what he had done, but I also felt sorry for his situation. For reasons I still don’t fully understand, I decided to call his mother. When I told her what he had done, she apologized repeatedly, then said coldly, “Let me speak to him.”
I don’t know what she said, but as the color drained from his face and he was reduced to repeatedly saying, “Yes, ma’am,” I assumed he was being read the riot act. After he hung up, he headed home to, I suspect, more severe punishment than the university could have given. He received a “0” on the exam and an official reprimand in his student file, but I’m willing to bet that the most important lesson he learned didn’t come from the university or me.
Though I didn’t yet know the word, the decision to call his mother was an example of phronesis, an ancient Greek word usually translated as “practical wisdom.” It refers to the ability to make good decisions in real-life situations, especially when there are no clear rules or easy answers.
Phronesis provides you with the ability to deliberate well about what is good and bad in specific circumstances. Unlike theoretical knowledge (sophia) or technical skill (techne), phronesis is about judgment – how to choose the right action at the right time for the right reasons.
When you think about wisdom, maybe you imagine a philosopher pondering big questions or a scientist unlocking the secrets of the universe. But phronesis is a different kind of wisdom, one that is less about abstract ideas and more about navigating the messy, unpredictable realities of everyday life. Phronesis helps you live well, not by following rules, but by making wise choices in the face of complexity. It’s what allows you to turn knowledge into action that is then beneficial.
Phronesis is a central component of the virtue approach to character development and morality first described by Aristotle. Virtues like courage, generosity, justice and temperance tell you what goals you should aim for, but they don’t tell you how much, when or in what way you should act in a specific situation. Phronesis helps you think through and decide the right means to achieve the right ends in the moment.
Let’s take the example of courage. Everyone wants to be brave and stand up for their values. However, without phronesis, too much courage may become recklessness, or too little courage could result in cowardice. Phronesis allows you to know when to take a risk and when to hold back.
Or consider justice, the virtue of treating others fairly. Phronesis allows you to choose what is fair in a specific situation. Virtues set the goals – for instance, “be courageous” or “be just” – but phronesis determines the right way to achieve them.
You don’t have to be a philosopher or a scientist to practice phronesis. Modern life is full of complexity. We are regularly faced with questions that don’t have clear answers.
Staying up past bedtime to watch a big game as a family has value that a strict adherence to rules would overlook. AzmanL/E+ via Getty Images
Picture a parent who must decide whether to enforce bedtime or allow a child to stay up for a special family occasion. The rule says bedtime is nonnegotiable, but practical wisdom reminds us of the value of shared family experiences.
Or consider a manager who notices an employee missing deadlines. Instead of simply reprimanding them, they might ask what’s going on and discover a family emergency. They could adjust expectations and offer support, balancing fairness with compassion.
In a world obsessed with data and efficiency, phronesis reminds us that human judgment still matters. Algorithms can optimize processes, but they can’t weigh moral values or capture the subtleties of human relationships. Whether in education, health care, business or politics, decisions that affect lives require more than technical expertise. They require wisdom.
Phronesis counters the illusion that life’s problems have simple, one-size-fits-all solutions. It helps us realize that good judgment takes time, empathy and reflection. So, the next time you face a tough decision, pause and ask: What’s the wise thing to do?
Whether it’s at work or at the dinner table, no one likes being interrupted. It’s an awkward situation in which you’re left to either let it pass to keep the peace or stand your ground at the risk of seeming aggressive. It can feel like a no-win scenario. However, a communication expert offers five methods that could help.
Vinh Giang is a public speaking coach who knows what it’s like to be interrupted and has found some great ways to help you maintain the floor and the flow of conversation. Better yet, these methods give you confidence and control without making you seem like a jerk.
The best way to stop interruptions is to prevent them ahead of time. Simply starting with, “Hey, let’s be mindful and allow everyone to complete their thought before weighing in,” can be enough. By setting ground rules at the start of a meeting, or even during a friendly conversation, everyone is reminded of basic manners.
Even if this doesn’t prevent interruptions, it can still help. These established boundaries give everyone the ability to say, “Excuse me, I’m not finished,” without looking like a bully.
2. Learn and use “bridging phrases”
Some folks get interrupted by accident because those around them mistake a pause for a sip of a drink or a breath for the end of a thought. Giang says a good way to work around this is to use “bridging phrases.”
Bridging phrases are quick sayings that indicate there’s more to come after a pause. Some examples include:
“Let me add to that…”
“Before I finish…”
“Continuing on…”
“In addition…”
“And another thing…”
Those are just a few examples, and there are many more to choose from. Using them can buy you time to collect your thoughts or take a sip of water while keeping everyone’s attention. It also helps to pause mid-gesture to signal nonverbally that you intend to continue.
If you want to stop being interrupted when you pause, the key is to be “mid-gesture” when you pause. Most people when they talk, they look and sound “done”. So when people interrupt you, it’s not because they’re being mean, they actually think you finished your sentence and that they can start talking. So the key to fixing this is to be gesturing mid-sentence or when you pause so you signal to people that you’re still going!
Giang says many people are easy to interrupt because they don’t assert themselves physically or vocally in a conversation. Speaking softly, meekly, or mumbling can make it difficult for others to maintain attention. Speaking upright, clearly, and with open hand gestures, on the other hand, makes your presence known and harder to interrupt.
If you have trouble speaking confidently, there are classes, videos, and articles that can help you improve your public speaking.
4. Acknowledge the interruption and keep the floor
If the previous preventative measures don’t work and you’re interrupted, you can still keep your speaking time. Giang and other professionals say it’s best to acknowledge the interruption. If you let it go, you risk ceding the floor and might not get it back.
It doesn’t have to be aggressive. It can be enough to say, “I would like to finish my thought, and then I’d love to hear your opinion. Is that okay?” This acknowledges the interruption while letting the other person know their opinion is still valued. Everyone can move forward.
5. If the interrupter’s point is valid, integrate their thoughts into your own
While interruptions may be rude, there are times when a good point is made. It’s a case of “good point, bad timing.” In these situations, that interruption can actually strengthen your ideas.
When this happens, Giang recommends taking the interrupter’s point and incorporating it into your response when you regain the floor. Say something like, “I hear that, and it’s a big part of the rest of my point…” or “I’m confident the rest of my thought will address that question.” This allows you to acknowledge the interruption without disrupting your flow.
Hopefully, these tips can help you feel heard and reduce interruptions while keeping the peace.
Photo credit: Overearth/iStock via Getty Images Plus – About 82% of Americans said in response to a survey that they give to charity or to people in need.
The nation’s political, social and economic divides might only strengthen that impression. But my recent research suggests that this belief would be misguided.
I’m a professor who teaches and conducts research about nonprofits and philanthropy. To understand the diversity of American generosity, I teamed up with Paige Rice and Veronica Selzler, two philanthropy consultants who contributed to the Generosity Commission’s report on U.S. generosity called “How and Why We Give.”
The Generosity Commission is a nonpartisan group of leaders from across the charitable sector. Its 2023 report shared the results of a national survey of 2,569 U.S. adults.
Drawing on data from that study, we sought to understand how different kinds of people may be motivated to act generously for different reasons and, as a result, express their generosity differently.
The study defined generosity broadly in terms of efforts or gifts made to support people in need, charitable causes or philanthropic organizations through actions like giving and volunteering. Our study was published in March 2026 in Nonprofit Management & Leadership, a peer-reviewed academic journal.
The overall propensity to give was about 82% based on responses to this question in the Generosity Commission’s survey: “On average, how much money do you donate each year to people in need, charitable causes, or philanthropic organizations?”
The survey also asked Americans about how they express their generosity.
We found that Americans’ generosity varies according to their aspirations, motivations and demographic characteristics. In other words, different kinds of Americans are generous in different ways.
Using a statistical modeling technique called latent profile analysis, which can find hidden groups of people based on observed data, we identified five segments of American society. They come from the general population, not just existing donors or volunteers.
Change-minded hopefuls, about 42% of the total, are mostly women and people with low incomes. They genuinely want to help people but are held back mainly by not having enough money.
Flexible moderates, roughly 35% of the survey’s respondents, are a middle-of-the-road group without strong political or religious motivations. They are open to helping out in a wide variety of ways when given the opportunity.
Values-driven skeptics, around 11% of those surveyed, are mostly older, conservative, religious and male. They are willing to give money but are worried that charities might not make good use of it.
Status seekers, approximately 9% of the participants in the survey, are the most generous group. Affluent, educated and religious, they are highly active in giving and volunteering and are motivated by social recognition and personal benefits.
Frustrated activists, only about 4% of the total, are passionate, liberal and financially strapped. They are often women and people of color. They care deeply about causes and prefer to take direct action rather than giving money.
Why it matters
Each of these groups is relatively generous. For example, the percentage of people in each one donating to people in need, charitable causes or philanthropic organizations ranged from a low of 77% – the frustrated activists – to a high of 93% among the status seekers. This shows that Americans with different mindsets exhibit a willingness to help others, even if their aspirations, motivations and demographic characteristics differ.
For nonprofits looking to attract more donors and volunteers, it may help to understand that different groups of people may have different motivations and concerns. By appealing to each group’s distinct qualities, nonprofits may be able to garner more support for their causes.
